AP Psychology: Key Terms

Independent variable

(Research) The factor a researcher manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent variable

(Research) The outcome that is measured in an experiment.

Placebo effect

(Research) Improvement caused by expectation rather than an active treatment.

Neuron

(Biological) A nerve cell that transmits information in the nervous system.

Synapse

(Biological) The tiny gap between neurons where signals pass via neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitter

(Biological) A chemical messenger that crosses the synapse between neurons.

Dopamine

(Biological) A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Amygdala

(Biological) A brain structure central to processing fear and emotion.

Hippocampus

(Biological) A brain structure essential for forming new memories.

Frontal lobe

(Biological) The brain region involved in decision-making, planning, and judgment.

Sympathetic nervous system

(Biological) The branch that arouses the body for 'fight or flight.'

Reuptake

(Biological) The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Classical conditioning

(Learning) Learning to associate a neutral stimulus with one that triggers a response; Pavlov.

Operant conditioning

(Learning) Learning in which behavior is shaped by reinforcement or punishment; Skinner.

Positive reinforcement

(Learning) Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

(Learning) Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Observational learning

(Learning) Learning by watching and imitating others; Bandura.

Sensation

(Sensation/Perception) Detecting physical stimuli through the senses.

Perception

(Sensation/Perception) Organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Absolute threshold

(Sensation/Perception) The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Circadian rhythm

(Consciousness) The body's roughly 24-hour biological clock.

REM sleep

(Consciousness) A sleep stage marked by rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.

Working memory

(Cognition) The system for temporarily holding and manipulating information.

Long-term memory

(Cognition) The relatively permanent store of knowledge and experience.

Encoding

(Cognition) The process of getting information into memory.

Retrieval

(Cognition) The process of getting information out of memory.

Confirmation bias

(Cognition) The tendency to seek information that confirms one's existing beliefs.

Heuristic

(Cognition) A mental shortcut that allows quick judgments and problem-solving.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

(Testing) A score representing performance on an intelligence test relative to others.

Standardization

(Testing) Establishing uniform procedures and norms for administering a test.

Assimilation

(Development) Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas; Piaget.

Attachment

(Development) The strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

Conservation

(Development) Understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in shape; Piaget.

Identity

(Development) Erikson's adolescent task of developing a coherent sense of self.

Drive-reduction theory

(Motivation) The idea that physiological needs create drives that motivate behavior.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

(Motivation) A pyramid of needs from basic survival to self-actualization.

James-Lange theory

(Emotion) The theory that emotion follows from the body's physiological arousal.

Id, ego, superego

(Personality) Freud's three interacting parts of personality.

Big Five

(Personality) Five broad traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

Fundamental attribution error

(Social) Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation in others' behavior.

Conformity

(Social) Adjusting one's behavior to match a group standard; Asch.

Cognitive dissonance

(Social) The discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes, motivating change; Festinger.

Major depressive disorder

(Abnormal) A mood disorder marked by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

Schizophrenia

(Abnormal) A disorder involving disordered thinking, delusions, and hallucinations.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

(Treatment) Therapy that works to change maladaptive thoughts and behaviors.